The Evolution Beyond Metals and Thermosets

The aerospace industry has long pursued materials that offer high strength and stiffness at minimal weight to enhance aircraft performance and fuel efficiency. This pursuit led to the progressive replacement of traditional metallic alloys with polymer matrix composites, primarily those utilizing thermosetting resins. Landmark aircraft programs like the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and the Airbus A350 XWB exemplify this evolution, achieving airframes composed of over 50% composite materials by weight.¹ These thermoset composites, typically carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRPs), delivered significant weight savings compared to their metallic predecessors. However, their manufacturing processes often involve complex chemical curing cycles, typically requiring large, energy-intensive autoclaves and lengthy processing times, posing challenges for achieving the high production rates demanded by modern commercial aircraft programs.²

Emergence of Thermoplastics (TPCs)

Responding to the limitations of thermosets and the unceasing demand for improved efficiency and performance, thermoplastic composites (TPCs) have emerged as a compelling next-generation material solution for aerostructures.² TPCs offer a unique combination of properties that address key industry drivers: the potential for significantly faster manufacturing cycles, enhanced material toughness and damage tolerance, inherent recyclability aligning with sustainability goals, and, crucially, the ability to be joined using welding techniques.² Initially confined to smaller, non-critical components, TPCs are now being aggressively developed and implemented for larger, more complex, and structurally demanding applications, signaling a potential paradigm shift in aerostructure design and manufacturing.¹⁵

The drive towards TPCs reflects more than just material substitution; it embodies a fundamental shift in manufacturing philosophy. The aerospace industry faces mounting pressure to increase production rates, particularly for high-volume single-aisle aircraft, and to enable the rapid, cost-effective manufacture of vehicles for emerging markets like Urban Air Mobility (UAM) and Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) aircraft.⁸ TPCs, with their potential for rapid, out-of-autoclave processing, high levels of automation, and integrated assembly through welding, are seen as key enablers for these future manufacturing paradigms.³ The Multi-Functional Fuselage Demonstrator (MFFD) project, for instance, explicitly targeted high-rate production capabilities (60-100 aircraft per month) achievable through TPC technologies.²⁵

The Welding Advantage

Perhaps the most transformative characteristic of TPCs in the context of aerostructures is their weldability.⁵ Unlike thermosets, which undergo irreversible chemical changes during curing, thermoplastics can be repeatedly softened and resolidified by applying heat. This allows components to be joined through fusion bonding or welding, creating monolithic structures by melting and fusing the polymer matrix at the interface under pressure.²⁹ This capability presents an attractive alternative to traditional joining methods like mechanical fastening (riveting or bolting) and adhesive bonding.⁵ Welding can eliminate thousands of fasteners, reducing part count, saving weight, simplifying assembly, and potentially lowering manufacturing costs.⁴

Furthermore, the ability to weld TPCs acts as a powerful design enabler. By removing the constraints imposed by fasteners (e.g., edge distance requirements, stress concentrations around holes) and the complexities of adhesive bonding (surface preparation, cure cycles), designers can conceptualize more integrated and structurally efficient components.¹ This could involve consolidating multiple parts previously joined by fasteners into a single, welded TPC assembly, leading to lighter structures and potentially smoother aerodynamic surfaces free from rivet heads.¹

Industry Leaders

Several aerospace manufacturers and suppliers are at the forefront of TPC development and implementation. Companies like Daher and Kawasaki Heavy Industries (KHI), the focus of this report, are actively investing in TPC materials, processing technologies, and welding capabilities.¹⁵ Other prominent players include Collins Aerospace (which acquired Dutch Thermoplastic Composites), Spirit AeroSystems, GKN Aerospace (Fokker), and major OEMs like Airbus and Boeing, who are driving demand and collaborating on key development programs.¹¹ This progress is supported by a wider ecosystem of material suppliers, equipment manufacturers, research institutions (like DLR, NLR, TU Delft), and collaborative initiatives such as Europe's Clean Sky/Clean Aviation program and the US-based American Aerospace Materials Manufacturing Center (AAMMC).¹⁵

Report Roadmap

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the role of thermoplastic composites and associated welding technologies in shaping next-generation aircraft structures. It begins by defining TPCs and contrasting their properties with traditional thermosets. It then delves into the primary welding techniques – ultrasonic, induction, and resistance welding – detailing their mechanisms, advantages, limitations, and applications in aerospace. Subsequently, it examines the specific strategies, developments, and implementations of TPCs and welding at Daher and Kawasaki Heavy Industries. Finally, the report analyzes broader market dynamics, key drivers, challenges, and future trends shaping the adoption of these advanced materials and processes in the aerospace sector.

‍Defining Thermoplastics vs. Thermosets

The fundamental distinction between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers lies in their molecular structure and response to heat.⁷ Thermoplastics consist of long, linear or branched polymer chains held together by secondary intermolecular forces (like Van der Waals bonds).⁷ When heated above their glass transition temperature (Tg​) or melting temperature (Tm​), these chains can move relative to each other, causing the material to soften and eventually melt into a viscous liquid. Upon cooling, the chains solidify, returning the material to a solid state. This process is a physical transformation and is entirely reversible, meaning thermoplastics can be repeatedly heated, reshaped, and cooled without altering their fundamental chemical structure.³

Thermosets, in contrast, start as liquid resins or low-viscosity materials containing reactive monomers or oligomers.⁴³ During the curing process, typically initiated by heat, catalysts, or radiation, these molecules undergo an irreversible chemical reaction, forming strong, permanent covalent cross-links between the polymer chains.⁷ This creates a rigid, three-dimensional network structure. Once cured, thermosets cannot be remelted or reshaped by reheating; excessive heat will cause degradation rather than softening.⁵ Think of a thermoplastic like butter, which can be melted and resolidified, whereas a thermoset is like a cake batter that, once baked, cannot be returned to its liquid state.

Key Aerospace Advantages of TPCs

The unique characteristics of thermoplastics translate into several compelling advantages for aerospace applications, driving their increasing adoption over both traditional metals and incumbent thermoset composites:

• Weight Reduction: TPCs offer significant weight-saving potential, a paramount concern in aerospace for improving fuel efficiency and reducing emissions. Compared to metallic solutions, TPCs can reduce structural weight by as much as 50%, and up to 20% compared to thermoset composite solutions.¹ This reduction directly impacts operational costs and environmental footprint.
• Manufacturing Speed and Efficiency: TPC processing relies on physical principles of melting and solidification, rather than time-consuming chemical cure reactions.³ This allows for drastically shorter manufacturing cycle times – potentially reducing them by 80% or more, from hours for thermosets to minutes for TPCs.³ Furthermore, TPCs are typically processed out-of-autoclave (OoA) using techniques like stamp forming, compression molding, or automated placement with in-situ consolidation, eliminating the bottleneck and high capital/energy costs associated with large autoclaves required for many high-performance thermosets.³ This enables significantly higher production rates crucial for future aircraft programs.
• Weldability: The ability to remelt TPCs enables components to be joined via fusion bonding or welding. This eliminates the need for mechanical fasteners (rivets, bolts) or adhesives, reducing part count, assembly time, and structural weight while potentially creating stronger, more integrated joints.⁴
• Impact Resistance and Toughness: Thermoplastic resins are generally inherently tougher and exhibit higher strain-to-failure than brittle thermoset matrices. This translates to TPCs having superior impact resistance and damage tolerance, critical properties for durable aerospace components subjected to potential impacts or fatigue loading.¹
• Recyclability and Sustainability: Because the forming process is reversible, TPC manufacturing scrap can be remelted and reformed, and end-of-life components can be recycled, contributing to a more circular economy and aligning with growing environmental sustainability goals.¹ TPC processing also generates minimal volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or hazardous waste compared to some thermoset processes.⁴³
• Storage and Shelf Life: TPC prepregs (pre-impregnated fibers) do not require chemical reactions to solidify and are stable at ambient temperatures. This gives them a virtually infinite shelf life without the need for costly refrigerated storage and complex logistics management associated with many thermoset prepregs.²
• Chemical and Environmental Resistance: High-performance TPCs exhibit good resistance to aerospace fluids, chemicals, and moisture absorption.⁵ Their low moisture uptake compared to thermosets (e.g., ~0.1% vs 1-2% for epoxies) results in less degradation of mechanical properties in hot/wet conditions.⁵ They also offer good resistance to UV radiation and general environmental factors ⁵⁴, although some sources caution about potential UV degradation for certain types.⁴⁶

Potential Disadvantages and Challenges

Despite their numerous advantages, TPCs also present challenges that need to be addressed for wider adoption:

• Higher Material Cost: Aerospace-grade thermoplastic resins like PEEK, PEKK, and PEI are generally significantly more expensive than conventional epoxy-based thermoset resins.⁴ This higher initial material cost can be a barrier, particularly for cost-sensitive applications. However, a holistic view of cost-effectiveness is necessary. While the raw material price is higher, the total manufacturing cost can become competitive or even lower for TPCs when factors like drastically reduced cycle times, the elimination of energy-intensive autoclave curing, the potential for high automation levels, simplified assembly through welding (reducing fastener costs and labor), and minimized waste due to recyclability and infinite shelf life are considered.¹ The economic viability of TPCs, therefore, improves significantly with increasing production volumes and the implementation of efficient, automated manufacturing processes.
• Higher Processing Temperatures: TPCs require substantially higher processing temperatures (typically 300-400°C) compared to the cure temperatures of common aerospace thermosets (120-180°C).⁷ This necessitates investment in high-temperature tooling (which can be more expensive and complex), specialized heating systems (e.g., lasers, high-power infrared emitters for AFP/ATL), and sophisticated thermal management during processing.⁴ The adoption of TPCs is thus intrinsically linked to the development and acquisition of compatible high-temperature manufacturing infrastructure and expertise.
• High Melt Viscosity: In their molten state, thermoplastics exhibit significantly higher viscosity compared to uncured thermoset resins.¹ This high viscosity makes traditional low-pressure thermoset processing methods like resin transfer molding (RTM) or vacuum-assisted RTM (VARTM) difficult or impractical for TPCs.²⁰ Consequently, TPC manufacturing relies more heavily on processes that can handle high viscosity materials under pressure, such as stamp forming, compression molding, automated fiber placement (AFP), and automated tape laying (ATL).³
• Creep Susceptibility: Because thermoplastic chains are not permanently cross-linked, they can potentially exhibit greater susceptibility to creep (deformation under sustained load over time), especially at elevated temperatures, compared to highly cross-linked thermosets.²⁰ However, high-performance semi-crystalline TPCs used in aerospace are designed to minimize creep within their operational temperature range.
• Lower Heat Resistance (Historically/Commodity Grades): While commodity thermoplastics may soften at relatively low temperatures, the high-performance engineering thermoplastics used in demanding aerospace applications (PEEK, PEKK, PEI, PPS) offer excellent thermal stability and high continuous service temperatures, often exceeding those of standard epoxies.⁵ For instance, PPS composites have been used on leading edges of the A340/A380 operating above 100°C.²⁰
• Standardization: A lack of established industry-wide standards for TPC manufacturing processes, testing protocols, and material specifications has been cited as a restraint, potentially slowing down qualification and adoption compared to the more mature thermoset field.¹²

Common Aerospace TPC Materials

The selection of specific TPC materials depends on the application requirements, balancing performance, processability, and cost.

• Resins: The most common high-performance thermoplastic resins used in aerospace include:

• Polyetheretherketone (PEEK): Known for excellent mechanical properties, high temperature resistance, chemical resistance, and wear resistance. Often used with carbon fiber for demanding structural applications like clips, cleats, brackets, and potentially larger components.¹ PEEK-based composites currently hold the largest market share in A&D TPCs.¹¹
• Polyetherketoneketone (PEKK): Similar to PEEK but offers a wider processing window and potentially different crystallization kinetics. Also used in high-performance structural applications.⁵
• Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS): Offers a good balance of mechanical properties, thermal stability, chemical resistance, and relative cost-effectiveness compared to PEEK/PEKK. Widely used for components like clips, cleats, and other structural parts.⁵
• Polyetherimide (PEI): An amorphous thermoplastic known for good mechanical properties, inherent flame resistance, and lower cost than PEEK/PEKK. Often used in interior applications or less demanding structures.⁵
• Polyaryletherketone (PAEK) / Low Melt PAEK (LM PAEK): A family of high-performance polymers including PEEK and PEKK. LM PAEK variants are engineered for lower processing temperatures, potentially reducing energy consumption and tooling requirements while maintaining good performance.¹

• Reinforcements:

• Carbon Fiber: The predominant reinforcement for high-performance aerospace TPCs due to its exceptional strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios.¹
• Glass Fiber: Used in applications where cost is a primary driver or where the extreme performance of carbon fiber is not required. Offers good strength, impact resistance, and electrical insulation properties.⁹ Often used for interior components or secondary structures.⁵⁴
• Aramid Fiber: Used less commonly but valued for excellent impact resistance in specific applications like protective structures.⁵⁴

• Forms: TPCs are available in various forms to suit different manufacturing processes:

• Unidirectional (UD) Tape: Offers the highest performance due to aligned fibers, suitable for automated tape laying (ATL) and automated fiber placement (AFP).¹
• Woven Fabrics: Provide good drapeability for complex shapes and balanced properties in multiple directions.⁵
• Short Fiber Thermoplastics (SFT): Used in injection molding for complex, smaller parts.⁸
• Long Fiber Thermoplastics (LFT) / Glass Mat Thermoplastics (GMT): Offer improved performance over SFT, often used in compression molding for semi-structural applications.⁸

Table 1: Thermoplastic vs. Thermoset Composites - Key Property Comparison

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‍The Need for Joining in Aerostructures

Aircraft are complex assemblies of numerous structural components. Wings, fuselage sections, control surfaces, ribs, stringers, and access panels must all be securely joined to form the complete airframe. For decades, the primary methods for joining aircraft structures, including those made from thermoset composites, have been mechanical fastening (rivets and bolts) and adhesive bonding.⁵

However, these traditional methods present drawbacks, particularly for composite structures. Mechanical fastening requires drilling holes, which cuts reinforcing fibers, creates stress concentrations, adds weight due to the fasteners themselves, and can be a time-consuming process.⁴ Adhesive bonding avoids fiber damage but requires meticulous surface preparation, involves potentially long cure times for structural adhesives, adds the weight of the adhesive layer, and raises concerns about long-term durability and non-destructive inspection (NDI) of the bondline.⁶

Fusion Bonding/Welding: A TPC Advantage

The ability of thermoplastics to be remelted provides a unique opportunity for joining via fusion bonding, commonly referred to as welding.⁵ This process involves heating the mating surfaces of TPC components to above the polymer's melt temperature (Tm​ for semi-crystalline, or above Tg​ for amorphous), applying pressure to ensure intimate contact and consolidation, and then cooling the joint to solidify the fused polymer.⁵ The result is ideally a monolithic joint with no discernible interface, effectively integrating the components.⁵

Welding offers significant potential benefits over traditional joining methods for TPCs:

• Elimination of Fasteners/Adhesives: Reduces or eliminates the need for rivets, bolts, and adhesive layers, leading to weight savings and simpler designs.⁴
• Reduced Weight and Part Count: By enabling more integrated structures and eliminating fasteners, welding contributes directly to aircraft weight reduction.¹
• Faster Assembly: Welding processes can often be completed much faster than the cycle times required for curing structural adhesives or installing numerous mechanical fasteners.⁵
• Automation Potential: Welding techniques are generally well-suited for automation using robotics, enabling high-rate, repeatable assembly processes.⁵
• Minimal Surface Preparation: Compared to adhesive bonding, welding typically requires less extensive surface preparation.²⁹

Primary Welding Technologies for TPCs

Several welding technologies have been developed and adapted for joining TPCs in aerospace applications. The most prominent methods are ultrasonic welding, induction welding, and resistance welding.⁵

Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

• Mechanism: USW utilizes high-frequency (typically 20-70 kHz) mechanical vibrations, generated by a transducer and transmitted through a tool called a sonotrode, to the parts being joined.²⁹ These vibrations, applied under static pressure, cause intense friction at the interface between the parts (interfacial heating) and potentially viscoelastic heating within the material itself due to rapid cyclic straining.²⁹ This localized heating rapidly melts the thermoplastic matrix. Continued pressure during and after the vibration cycle consolidates the molten material, forming a weld upon cooling.²⁹ To facilitate and localize the initial heating, small, pre-formed geometric features called Energy Directors (EDs) are often incorporated onto one of the mating surfaces or on a separate film placed at the interface.²⁹
• Advantages: USW is an extremely fast process, with weld times often measured in seconds.²⁹ It is energy-efficient, requires no additional materials like adhesives or consumables at the joint line (unless using a separate ED film), and is inherently a clean process generating no fumes or significant debris, making it suitable for cleanroom environments.²⁷ Its speed and simplicity lend themselves well to automation.²⁹ It can also be used to join dissimilar thermoplastic materials.⁵⁹
• Disadvantages/Challenges: Traditionally, USW has been primarily used for spot welding or joining relatively small areas, as delivering uniform ultrasonic energy over large, continuous paths has been challenging.³⁰ Significant research efforts are underway to develop continuous USW processes suitable for larger aerostructures, as demonstrated in projects like the MFFD.²⁷ The process parameters (vibration amplitude, weld pressure, weld time, hold time) are critical and must be carefully optimized to achieve good melt flow and consolidation without causing material degradation or fiber damage.⁷ The effectiveness of energy transmission can be affected by part thickness and geometry, requiring careful consideration for upscaling.⁶¹ The "hammering effect" (oscillatory impacts) also plays a role in heating and needs to be accounted for in process modeling.⁶¹
• Aerospace Examples: USW is used for joining various lightweight TPC components, particularly where numerous discrete joints are needed quickly, such as attaching clips or small reinforcements.³² It has been employed for assembling parts on the MFFD lower shell ²⁵, demonstrated on space shuttle beams ³¹, and used historically for materials on the C-130 Hercules.³² It is applicable to common aerospace TPCs like CF/PPS and CF/PEEK ²⁹ and is also being explored for composite repair applications.⁵⁹

Induction Welding (IW)

• Mechanism: IW is a non-contact heating method that uses electromagnetic induction.²⁹ An induction coil, carrying a high-frequency alternating current, is placed near the joint line. This generates a fluctuating magnetic field that penetrates the TPC components.⁵ If conductive elements are present at or near the interface, the magnetic field induces eddy currents within them. The electrical resistance of these conductive elements causes them to heat up rapidly due to the Joule effect (I²R heating), melting the surrounding thermoplastic matrix.⁵ Pressure is applied simultaneously or sequentially to consolidate the joint as it cools.⁷ For carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastics (CFRPs), the inherently conductive carbon fibers themselves can often serve as the heating element, eliminating the need for foreign materials at the interface.⁵ For non-conductive composites like glass fiber reinforced TPCs (GFRPs), a conductive susceptor material (e.g., a metallic mesh, carbon fabric, or conductive thermoplastic film) must be strategically placed at the bond line to absorb the electromagnetic energy and generate heat.³²
• Advantages: IW offers rapid, localized heating without direct contact between the heat source (coil) and the part.²⁹ It is well-suited for creating continuous weld lines, even on large or moderately curved surfaces.⁵ The process can be readily automated using robotic systems to move the induction coil along the weld path.⁵ It has demonstrated the ability to produce high-strength joints (e.g., lap shear strengths around 40 MPa reported for CF/PPS).³² IW is a relatively mature technology in aerospace, with applications dating back decades (e.g., Fokker 50, A340/A380).³⁰ It enables the assembly of structures without fasteners, contributing to weight reduction and potentially faster production.¹⁶
• Disadvantages/Challenges: A key requirement is the presence of a conductive element at the joint interface, whether it's the reinforcing fibers themselves or an added susceptor.³⁰ If a susceptor is used, it remains embedded in the final joint, which may not be desirable in all applications.³² The initial cost of induction welding equipment and tooling can be relatively high.³⁰ Achieving uniform heating can be challenging, particularly with highly anisotropic materials like unidirectional CFRP tapes, where conductivity differs significantly along and across the fiber direction.⁵ Careful thermal management is often required to prevent overheating of the outer surfaces while ensuring sufficient heat reaches the interface.⁵ The strong electromagnetic fields can also potentially interfere with nearby sensors or electronics if not properly managed.³¹
• Aerospace Examples: IW is used for joining various structural TPC components and for repairs.²⁹ Notable examples include the rudders and elevators of the Gulfstream G650 ⁵⁹, main landing gear doors on the Fokker 50 ³⁰, J-nose leading edge wing structures on the Airbus A340 and A380 ³⁰, and potentially components on the F-14.³² Spirit AeroSystems used it in their Nose Wheel Well Bulkhead demonstrator ²², and Daher is heavily investing in it for projects like the TRAMPOLINE 2 horizontal tailplane and a full-scale torsion box demonstrator.¹⁶

Resistance Welding (RW)

• Mechanism: RW utilizes the principle of Joule heating (P=I2R) by passing an electrical current directly through a resistive heating element placed at the interface between the TPC parts to be joined.⁵ This heating element is typically a metallic mesh (e.g., stainless steel), a carbon fiber fabric, or a conductive polymer film.⁵ Electrical contacts are made at the ends of the element, current is applied, and the element's resistance converts electrical energy into heat, melting the adjacent thermoplastic matrix. Pressure is maintained throughout the heating and cooling cycle to consolidate the joint.⁷
• Advantages: RW provides highly localized and controllable heating directly at the bond line.³⁰ It is known for producing strong, durable joints and is considered versatile, capable of joining a range of TPC materials and handling varying part thicknesses (reported from 3 mm up to 30 mm).³⁰ The process allows for precise control over temperature and pressure profiles, which is important for ensuring weld quality and scalability.³⁰ Studies have shown RW can have lower energy consumption compared to USW and IW.²⁹ It is highly compatible with automated manufacturing systems, offering potential for significant production cost reductions (up to 40% cited).²⁹ RW is particularly effective for creating long, continuous welds required for large, complex structures like fuselage skin-stringer assemblies or pressure bulkheads.²⁹ It has also been proven as a viable method for on-aircraft repairs.³⁰
• Disadvantages/Challenges: The primary drawback of conventional RW is that the heating element remains permanently embedded within the welded joint.⁵ This adds some weight, can potentially create stress concentrations, and if a metallic element is used, may introduce risks of galvanic corrosion, especially with carbon fiber composites.³⁰ Welding conductive CFRP adherends can be challenging due to the risk of electrical current leaking from the heating element into the surrounding carbon fibers, which can lead to uneven heating, require lower applied pressures or shorter weld times, and potentially result in incomplete fusion or reduced joint strength (a 15% drop was noted in one study due to this issue).²⁹ Careful thermal management is also necessary, particularly when welding thicker components, to ensure proper consolidation without overheating.³⁰ Research into using carbon-based heating elements aims to mitigate some issues associated with embedded metallic meshes.⁵
• Aerospace Examples: RW is increasingly adopted for joining primary and secondary TPC structures. Examples include typical skin/stringer configurations ²⁹, the assembly of frames to skin and cleats to stringers in the MFFD project ³⁰, potentially the Airbus A320 rear pressure bulkhead ³⁰, and the welding of PEEK and PEI laminates in past military programs.³² Spirit AeroSystems has also demonstrated its use alongside induction welding.²²

Automation and Process Control: The Keys to Reliability

Regardless of the specific welding technique employed, successful industrial implementation for aerospace hinges on automation and rigorous process control.⁵ Achieving the consistent quality, tight tolerances, and high reliability demanded for flight-critical structures requires moving beyond manual operations. Robotic systems are essential for precisely manipulating welding heads (sonotrodes, induction coils) or applying pressure platens, ensuring repeatable positioning, movement, and force application, especially over large or complex geometries.⁵

Equally critical is the ability to monitor and control key process parameters in real-time. This includes precise management of temperature at the interface, applied pressure, energy input (vibration amplitude/power for USW, current/frequency for IW/RW), and process duration (weld time, hold time).⁷ Advanced systems incorporate sensors for in-situ monitoring (e.g., displacement sensors for USW ⁶⁰, thermocouples or infrared thermography for temperature ⁵⁹), providing feedback for closed-loop control and quality assurance. The feasibility of achieving high-rate TPC manufacturing relies heavily on mastering the automation of these welding processes. The inherent complexity of controlling heat flow, polymer melting and consolidation, and tool interaction necessitates sophisticated robotic integration, advanced sensor technology, and robust process modeling capabilities.⁵ Significant investment in these areas is therefore a prerequisite for unlocking the full production potential of TPC welding in aerospace.

Post-weld quality verification is also crucial, employing non-destructive inspection (NDI) techniques like ultrasonic inspection to detect voids or disbonds, alongside destructive mechanical testing (e.g., lap shear tests, peel tests) during process development and qualification to validate joint strength and failure modes.⁷

Table 2: Comparison of Primary TPC Welding Technologies

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The selection of the most appropriate welding technology is therefore strongly influenced by the specific requirements of the application, particularly its scale and geometry. USW's speed makes it ideal for numerous small, localized joints like attaching clips or brackets.²⁷ RW appears to be the preferred method for large, linear structural joints demanding high integrity, such as fuselage panel assemblies or pressure bulkheads, despite the inherent challenge of the embedded heating element.³⁰ IW strikes a balance, offering non-contact heating suitable for continuous welds on large, potentially contoured surfaces, particularly advantageous when embedding an element is undesirable, though it faces hurdles related to initial cost and process control, especially for anisotropic materials.⁵ This specialization suggests a future manufacturing landscape where multiple welding techniques might be employed synergistically on a single aircraft, each optimized for the specific type of joint being created.

The theoretical advantages of TPCs and welding technologies are being actively translated into practical applications by leading aerospace companies. Examining the approaches of Daher and Kawasaki Heavy Industries provides valuable insight into the current state and future direction of TPC implementation.

Daher: Pioneering Thermoplastic Integration and Welding

Daher has strategically positioned itself as a frontrunner in the industrialization of thermoplastic composites for aerospace applications.¹⁵ While maintaining expertise in traditional thermosets, the company dedicates a significant portion of its R&D efforts towards maturing TPC technologies, recognizing their potential for lighter structures, faster production, recyclability, and weldability – key attributes for next-generation aircraft.¹⁵

Daher operates a highly automated factory in Nantes, France, specialized in TPC component production, considered one of the most advanced in Europe.¹⁵ To further accelerate development, Daher launched the Shap'in innovation center near Nantes in 2022. This center focuses on maturing advanced composite technologies, particularly TPCs, and scaling them for industrial production, collaborating closely with regional partners like the IRT Jules Verne and the EMC2 cluster.¹⁷

Daher's TPC portfolio includes a growing range of components, demonstrating the material's versatility:

• Structural Parts: High-load ribs (e.g., for Airbus Wing of Tomorrow), spars, false spars, shear webs, stringers, and panels for fuselage and wings.¹⁵
• Engine Components: Air intake bulkheads, Rear Secondary Structures (RSS), Forward Secondary Structures (FSS).¹⁵
• Control Surfaces/Stabilizers: A full-scale, welded TPC torsion box demonstrator representing the horizontal tailplane (HTP) of their own TBM aircraft.¹⁵
• Other Components: Clips, cleats, brackets, profiles, and even flight control pedals for the TBM made from recycled TPC.²³

Daher supplies TPC parts for various established aircraft programs, including the Dassault Rafale fighter jet, Airbus commercial aircraft (A340, A350, A380, A400M), and business jets from Gulfstream and Dassault.¹⁵ They are actively developing parts using high-performance resins like PEEK and LM PAEK, often reinforced with carbon fiber.¹⁵ They have also demonstrated capability in manufacturing thick TPC structures, collaborating with Victrex on a 32mm thick laminate panel and developing components for central wing boxes.²³

Central to Daher's strategy is the mastery of advanced manufacturing processes suitable for TPCs. They utilize Automated Fiber Placement (AFP), a patented "Direct Stamping®" process that accelerates production cycles, compression molding, and co-consolidation techniques.¹⁵ Automation is a key focus to achieve the high production rates required by OEMs.¹⁵

A defining element of Daher's TPC approach is its strong emphasis on welding, particularly induction welding. Following the strategic acquisition of KVE Composites Group, a Dutch specialist in induction welding, in 2019, Daher has integrated and further developed this patented technology.³⁴ They view welding as a critical enabler for reducing weight (by up to 15% through rivet elimination), increasing production rates, and simplifying assembly.¹⁵ The successful validation of induction welding on the full-scale TBM HTP torsion box demonstrator at the Shap'in center marked a significant milestone, proving the industrial feasibility of this fastener-free assembly method for complex aerostructures.³⁴

Daher actively participates in collaborative R&D programs to advance TPC technology. They lead the TRAMPOLINE 2 project under France's CORAC framework, focusing specifically on developing a TPC horizontal tailplane assembled using induction welding instead of riveting.¹⁵ They are also involved in the CARAC TP project to characterize TPC materials for aerospace applications and are partners in Clean Sky initiatives like Airbus's Wing of Tomorrow.¹⁶ Furthermore, Daher is implementing structured TPC recycling processes, demonstrating a commitment to the material's lifecycle sustainability.¹⁵

Kawasaki Heavy Industries (KHI): Large Structures and Evolving Processes

Kawasaki Heavy Industries possesses extensive, proven expertise in manufacturing large, complex composite aerostructures, primarily demonstrated through its role as a major partner on the Boeing 787 Dreamliner program.³⁸ KHI is responsible for designing and manufacturing the 787's forward fuselage section – notable for being a large, one-piece barrel structure made primarily of thermoset composites – as well as the main landing gear wheel well and parts of the wing's fixed trailing edge.³⁸

To support this large-scale production, KHI has made substantial investments in its Nagoya Works 1 facility, establishing dedicated plants (North, South, and East) equipped with state-of-the-art machinery. This includes large autoclaves for curing thermoset components, multiple AFP machines for automated material layup, automated fastening systems, large-scale trim and drill machines, and advanced ultrasonic NDI equipment.⁵³ Their experience extends to other Boeing programs (767, 777, 777X) and partnerships with Embraer.³⁸

While KHI's most prominent composite application to date involves thermosets processed via AFP and autoclave curing, the company is actively engaged in research and development of thermoplastic composite technologies to leverage their potential benefits.³⁵ Recognizing the industry trend towards OoA processing and higher rates, KHI has developed a novel manufacturing method for TPCs termed "local co-consolidation".³⁵ This OoA process is designed for fabricating complex, stiffened TPC skin panels. It utilizes precisely controlled temperature distribution in molds combined with progressive feeding of a movable lower mold against a fixed upper mold. Significantly, this method integrates the simultaneous welding of stiffeners (like stringers) to the skin panel during the skin's consolidation phase. This innovative approach aims to produce large TPC stiffened panels with shorter flow times than autoclave processes, without requiring extremely large presses, and achieving stable quality through one-shot joining.³⁵ KHI, in partnership with JAMCO, Toray, and others, presented this technology, demonstrating its potential for fuselage skin panels.³⁵

Further evidence of KHI's TPC research includes presentations on joining CF/PEEK materials ⁵⁹, R&D efforts encompassing TPCs alongside injection molded plastics ⁷¹, and the application of composite expertise (developed partly through aerospace) to other sectors, such as the "efWING" CFRP railway bogie.⁷⁴ They are also developing large hydraulic press systems suitable for molding both thermoset and thermoplastic CFRP components ⁷² and have been involved in research using infrared thermography to monitor the USW process.⁵⁹

Compared to Daher, KHI's public disclosures (based on the provided material) place less explicit emphasis on a broad portfolio of current TPC production parts or a specific patented welding technology like induction welding. Instead, KHI appears to be leveraging its deep experience in large-scale, automated composite manufacturing (from the 787) to develop unique, highly integrated OoA manufacturing processes for large TPC structures, such as the local co-consolidation technique that inherently incorporates welding.

KHI's broader R&D activities, encompassing areas like hydrogen technology, robotics, automation, and process innovation across its diverse business segments (Aerospace, Energy, Rail, Robotics), likely provide a synergistic foundation for its future advancements in TPC manufacturing.⁵³

Strategic Approaches and Collaboration

Comparing Daher and KHI reveals distinct but converging strategic paths in the TPC domain. Daher has made TPC industrialization, heavily leveraging welding (especially induction via its KVE acquisition), a central pillar of its public-facing strategy, aiming to supply a diverse range of TPC components.¹⁵ KHI, building on its formidable large-structure thermoset manufacturing base, is developing innovative, integrated OoA TPC processes like local co-consolidation that combine forming and welding in a single step, targeting large panel applications.³⁵ Both companies clearly recognize OoA processing and welding as essential technologies for future aerostructures and are investing heavily in R&D and automation.

The advancement of TPC technology is not happening in isolation. The case studies and broader research highlight the critical role of ecosystem collaboration. Daher's partnerships with research institutes (IRT Jules Verne), industry clusters (EMC2), academia, and suppliers are integral to its Shap'in center and project successes.¹⁷ KHI collaborated with multiple partners to develop its local co-consolidation process.³⁵ Large-scale demonstrators like the MFFD involved extensive consortia including OEMs (Airbus), Tier 1 suppliers (GKN), research organizations (DLR, NLR), and universities (TU Delft).²⁵ Initiatives like the AAMMC in the US explicitly bring together industry, government, and academia to create shared testbed facilities and accelerate technology maturation.²⁴ This collaborative model appears essential for tackling the complex challenges of material science, process development, automation, and standardization required to industrialize TPCs for widespread aerospace use. No single entity possesses all the necessary expertise or resources; progress relies on networked innovation.

Table 3: Examples of TPC Components and Manufacturing Processes at Daher & KHI

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Market Size and Growth Projections

The global market for thermoplastic composites is experiencing robust growth, driven by increasing adoption across various industries, with aerospace and automotive being key sectors. Market size estimates and growth projections vary slightly between sources, but consistently point towards a significant upward trend.

• One report estimates the global TPC market at US$31.2 Billion in 2024, projected to reach US$47.5 Billion by 2030, reflecting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 7.3%.⁸
• Another source forecasts the market reaching US$26 Billion by 2030, with a CAGR of 4% from 2023.¹³
• A third projects growth from US$25.89 Billion in 2023 to US$44.87 Billion by 2030, implying a CAGR of 8.17%.¹⁴
• Focusing specifically on the Aerospace & Defense (A&D) sector, the market was valued at approximately US$330 Million in 2023 and is predicted to grow at a much higher CAGR of 14.8% to reach US$870 Million by 2030.¹¹ This indicates particularly strong momentum for TPCs within aerospace.

Geographically, the Asia Pacific region currently represents the largest overall market for TPCs, largely driven by its significant automotive and electronics industries.¹³ However, Europe holds a dominant position in the A&D thermoplastic composites market (estimated 56.1% share in 2023), fueled by Airbus's significant use of TPCs (e.g., on the A350XWB) and the presence of key Tier 1 suppliers like Daher and GKN Aerospace.¹¹ North America is expected to see strong growth, driven by Boeing's activities, defense applications, emerging UAM/eVTOL markets, and strategic initiatives like the AAMMC Tech Hub aimed at building domestic TPC supply chains.⁸

Key Growth Drivers

Several interconnected factors are propelling the adoption of TPCs in aerospace:

• The Unrelenting Pursuit of Lightweighting: Reducing aircraft weight remains a primary objective to improve fuel efficiency, lower operational costs, and decrease greenhouse gas emissions, helping airlines and OEMs meet increasingly stringent environmental regulations.³ TPCs offer substantial weight savings over metals and even thermoset composites.³
• Emphasis on Sustainability: The inherent recyclability of TPCs aligns perfectly with the growing focus on circular economy principles and reducing the environmental impact of manufacturing and end-of-life disposal.¹ The potential for lower-energy OoA processing further enhances their environmental credentials compared to autoclave-cured thermosets.³ This sustainability aspect is evolving from a secondary benefit into a potentially decisive factor in material selection as the industry prioritizes ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) goals.
• Advancements in Manufacturing Technology: Continuous innovation in TPC processing is crucial. Developments in automated fiber placement (AFP) and automated tape laying (ATL) with integrated heating (laser, infrared), faster and more reliable welding techniques (USW, IW, RW), advanced molding processes (stamp forming, compression molding), and sophisticated automation and robotics are making TPC manufacturing faster, more consistent, more cost-effective, and capable of producing larger and more complex parts.³
• Demand from New Aircraft Programs and Markets: The development cycles for next-generation commercial aircraft (like potential successors to the A320 and B737 families), advanced military platforms (including attritable aircraft), and entirely new aviation segments like UAM/eVTOL create opportunities to design-in TPCs from the outset.⁴ These new markets often demand the high production rates, cost efficiencies, and lightweight performance that TPCs promise.²²

Challenges and Restraints

Despite the positive momentum, several hurdles remain for the widespread adoption of TPCs in primary aerostructures:

• Cost Factors: The high price of aerospace-grade TPC resins compared to thermosets remains a significant consideration.⁴ Additionally, the substantial capital investment required for specialized high-temperature processing equipment (presses, AFP heads, welding systems) and tooling can be a barrier for entry or expansion.⁴ While total lifecycle cost analysis can favor TPCs, the initial investment hurdle is real.
• Process Standardization and Maturity: Compared to the decades of experience with thermosets, TPC manufacturing and joining processes are less standardized across the industry.¹² Further development, validation, and standardization of processing parameters, quality control methods, NDI techniques, and repair procedures are needed to build confidence and ensure consistency, particularly for flight-critical applications.⁵
• Scaling Up Production: While TPCs offer potential for high rates, reliably manufacturing very large, integrated structures (like full fuselage barrels or wing skins) with complex geometries using techniques like welding or co-consolidation at the required speeds presents significant engineering challenges.²⁴ Managing thermal gradients, ensuring complete consolidation, controlling warpage, and achieving tight tolerances over large dimensions are areas of active research and development.⁵ This creates a potential tension: the desire for high rates necessitates mastering manufacturing at scale, which is inherently complex. Success in initiatives like the MFFD and the AAMMC testbed, which directly address this rate-versus-scale challenge, will be critical.²⁴
• Design and Analysis Tools: Mature and validated simulation tools are essential for optimizing TPC part design and predicting manufacturing process outcomes (e.g., melt flow, consolidation, residual stresses during welding or forming) and in-service performance (e.g., progressive damage analysis under load).² Further development and validation of these predictive capabilities are needed to accelerate the design cycle and reduce reliance on extensive physical testing.

Emerging Trends and Future Outlook

The future trajectory of TPCs in aerospace appears bright, shaped by several key trends:

• Pervasive Automation and Digitization: The trend towards highly automated manufacturing cells integrating robotics for handling, layup (AFP/ATL), forming, trimming, welding, and inspection will accelerate.³ This will be increasingly coupled with digital technologies like process simulation, digital twins for optimizing production and predicting performance, and artificial intelligence (AI) / machine learning for real-time process control, defect detection, and materials development.²⁶
• Larger and More Integrated Structures: The focus will continue shifting from small brackets and clips towards using TPCs for major structural components like fuselage sections, wing skins, spars, ribs, and empennage structures.¹¹ Welding and co-consolidation techniques will be key to enabling this integration, reducing part count and assembly complexity.¹⁷
• Hybrid Material Approaches: Future designs may incorporate hybrid structures, strategically combining different materials – potentially thermosets and thermoplastics, or different types of TPCs (e.g., PEEK in high-stress areas, PEI elsewhere) – within a single component or assembly to optimize performance, weight, and cost.⁴² Joining dissimilar materials effectively will be crucial here.⁵⁹
• Sustainability as a Core Design Principle: Environmental considerations will become increasingly central to material and process selection. The recyclability of TPCs will drive investment in efficient recycling infrastructure and the development of applications for recycled TPC materials.³⁶ Research into bio-based thermoplastic resins and sustainable manufacturing practices will gain further traction.³⁶
• Importance of Collaborative Platforms: Continued progress will rely heavily on collaborative R&D efforts through consortia (like Clean Aviation), industry organizations (like SAMPE), dedicated testbeds (like AAMMC), major trade shows (like JEC World), and knowledge dissemination platforms (like CompositesWorld and Aviation Week) to share findings, develop standards, and de-risk the adoption of new technologies.²

The aerospace industry is undergoing a significant material evolution, with thermoplastic composites poised to play an increasingly critical role in the design and manufacture of next-generation aircraft. The compelling advantages offered by TPCs – substantial weight reduction, dramatically faster manufacturing cycles, superior toughness and damage tolerance, inherent recyclability, and simplified logistics due to long shelf life – address many of the key challenges facing the sector, including the relentless drive for fuel efficiency, the need for higher production rates, and the growing imperative for environmental sustainability.³

Crucially, the ability to join TPC components using fusion bonding, or welding, represents a transformative technological leap. Techniques like ultrasonic, induction, and resistance welding offer pathways to eliminate heavy and complex mechanical fasteners and adhesives, enabling the creation of lighter, more integrated, and potentially more aerodynamically efficient structures.⁴ The successful automation of these welding processes is fundamental to unlocking the high-rate production potential of TPCs.

Industry leaders like Daher and Kawasaki Heavy Industries exemplify the commitment to advancing TPC technology. Daher demonstrates a strong focus on industrializing TPC production across a range of components, with a particular emphasis on leveraging patented induction welding technology as a core competency.¹⁵ KHI, building upon its extensive experience in manufacturing large-scale thermoset composite structures for the Boeing 787, is developing innovative, integrated out-of-autoclave TPC processes like local co-consolidation, which combines forming and welding to tackle large panel applications.³⁵ While their specific approaches may differ, both companies, along with other key players like Collins Aerospace and Spirit AeroSystems, are clearly investing in TPCs and welding as foundational technologies for future aircraft.

Significant challenges undoubtedly remain. The higher initial cost of TPC materials, the need for further standardization of manufacturing and joining processes, the complexities of scaling production to very large structures at high rates, and the requirement for mature predictive modeling tools must be addressed.⁴ However, the pace of innovation, driven by intensive R&D, advancements in automation and digitization, and vital collaborative efforts through consortia and shared testbeds, suggests these hurdles are surmountable.²⁴

The trajectory is clear: thermoplastic composites, enabled by sophisticated welding techniques and highly automated manufacturing systems, are set to redefine aerostructure production. This shift promises not only lighter and more fuel-efficient aircraft but also more sustainable and potentially more cost-effective manufacturing processes. The integration of these technologies represents more than just an incremental improvement; it is a key enabler for achieving the performance, production rate, and environmental goals of the next generation of flight.

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